If you picture a flying machine, you probably imagine a craft which is heavier than air, somehow kept aloft with wings or propellers. Heavier-than-air flight dominates discourses about aviation. “Sustainable” crafts are designed to be as light as possible (whilst remaining heavier than air), so that they require less energy from whatever renewable source they use for lift. These machines include human-powered planes such as those using pedals to rotate a propeller. Lighter still are kites and gliders, which remain heavier than air, but rely on air resistance and lighter air around them to fly.

Less discussed are flying machines which are lighter than the air they fly through because the weight of their materials and passengers is counterbalanced by the hot air or light gases they contain. [1] Perhaps this is because most of us experience flight in passenger airliners, not Zeppelins. In theory, making lighter-than-air flight sustainable is simple: heat a container full of air with sunlight so that it rises. In January 2020, Leticia Noemi Marqués flew freely in the Aerocene Pacha solar balloon, the first Fédération Aéronautique Internationale certified fully-solar, untethered, manned flight. Previous flights of this kind went uncertified or relied on propane burners or inflation generators [2]. Aerocene Pacha flies on solar energy not from solar panels or batteries but absorbed directly in the envelope (the fabric of the balloon).

Solar balloons are a subcategory of hot air balloons, which rise because the hot air inside is less dense than the external air. Hot air and helium balloons were developed in 18th century French experiments. In quick succession in 1783, aeronauts achieved a series of firsts for ballooning. In November, the Montgolfier brothers launched the first animal-carrying hot air balloon (containing a duck, rooster and sheep). In September Pilatre de Rozier and Marquis D’Arlandes were the first people to fly untethered in a hot air balloon. This last balloon flew with the risk that the envelope would ignite from the embers which were used to heat the hot air. [1]

The solar balloon invented itself

The solar balloon awaited, latent, within this history. It could be said that the solar balloon invented itself in an accident in 1794, when a hot air balloon in France freed itself from its tethers and rose into the air purely from the heat of the sun. [2] The potential of this phenomena went unnoticed as balloon inventors moved on to design airships powered by the internal combustion engine, like Zeppelins. In the 1960s, Ed Yost refined the hot air balloon with the addition of a propane burner, which the fuel source used most commonly today. The risk of fire continues to haunt recent hot air balloons, prompting alternative designs which do not involve combustion. In the 1990s, Alejandro Uribe adapted the unmanned paper balloons Brazilian communities build for festivals to be fully solar to eliminate the danger of balloon-lit forest fires.

Solar balloons rely on the same principle as combustion hot air balloons, but with sunlight absorbed by the envelope to replace the burner. From 1972, Dominic Michaelis designed and tested a series of manned solar balloons with transparent polyester envelopes and black fabric inside to absorb heat. [2] Julian Nott used one of these to successfully fly across the English Channel in 1981. These flights were assisted by propane burners. Tracy Barnes performed the first fully solar balloon flight in 1973, using a tetrahedral-shaped single skin envelope. [3] It is unclear how the balloon was inflated. Aerocene Pacha is the most recent solar balloon flight to be manned, untethered and, ostensibly, entirely independent from fossil fuels. The team inflated the envelope with fans run on pedal power.

Manned solar balloons

Manned solar balloons combine the technologies of burner-heated balloons and unmanned solar balloons used in scientific research. An example of the latter was the 1977 Montgolfière Infrarouge (MIR), which circulated in the lower stratosphere, flying on sunlight in the day and infrared at night. [2] Infrared is sufficient to maintain altitudes of around 20 kilometres because the air is so thin. [4] Recent examples use simpler technology – the Heliotrope Solar Hot-Air Balloon costs around 30 dollars to make and can be “ram inflated” by holding the bottom open and walking it to and fro until it fills with air.

Researchers have also explored the potential of using tethered solar balloons to generate electricity. One wind-solar system, designed by Robert Grena, is aided by a small pocket of hydrogen and pre-heated by “charging” for a period of time in the sun. [5] When it is released, the balloon unwinds its rope from its windlass, which powers a generator. Wind-power contributes by pulling the balloon, and so the rope, horizontally. Grena proposes systems for deflating the balloon at its peak altitude, so energy is not lost from air or wind resistance as it falls. The simplest of these contraptions consists of rods fixed to the envelope which are held bent by taunt strings for the ascent and straighten when the tension is released for the fall, pulling the envelope shut.

Altitude and Distance

Do Aerocene flights and their ilk herald an age in which we are more likely to fly by solar balloon than passenger plane? Julian Nott proved that international travel via (primarily) solar-powered balloon is possible forty years ago, when he crossed the English Channel. Nott flew from a point northwest of Dover to Tournehem sur la Hem near Calais, making the flight distance over 60km. Aerocene’s official world record for solar-balloon flight distance at 2.55km (measured as the crow flies between lift-off and landing points) is less encouraging. Most solar balloon attempts, especially for scientific purposes, have focused on altitude rather than distance, so there is as yet unexplored potential.

If solar technology could be made as reliable as propane burners, they could carry passengers across the Pacific, which is the hot air balloon distance record of 7671km, set by Per Lindstrand and Richard Branson in 46 hours and 15 minutes in 1991 (far longer flights have combined hot air with other gas technology). [6] This would rival the human powered flight Guinness World Record of 115 km, set by Kanellos Kanellopoulos in 1988. [7] The problem remains that fully solar balloons need sunlight, and it is rare for the sky to remain unclouded for long journeys. Any transport system based on solar balloons would have to be opportunistic, where pilots wait for safe conditions and perhaps break journeys into short stages.

Francis Rogers.

Thanks to Nicolas Maigret.

Sources:

[1] Folkes, J. (2008). Balloons, airships and kites – lighter than air: Past, present and future. The Aeronautical Journal (1968), 112(1133), 421-429. doi:10.1017/S0001924000002384

[2] Aerocene Community, 2021. A brief history of Solar Ballooning and Aerocene. [online] Aerocene.org. Available at: <https://aerocene.org/a-brief-solar-ballooning-and-aerocene/#> [Accessed 11 July 2021].

[3] Brown, D., (1974). Sunstat: A Balloon that Rides on Sunbeams. Ballooning, XI(2), pp.5-9. Available at: <https://www.brisbanehotairballooning.com.au/wp-content/uploads/2015/02/SunstatArticleinBallooning.pdf> [Accessed 11 July 2021].

[4] Bowman, D., Norman, P., Pauken, M., Albert, S., Dexheimer, D., Yang, X., Krishnamoorthy, S., Komjathy, A. and Cutts, J., (2020). Multihour Stratospheric Flights with the Heliotrope Solar Hot-Air Balloon. Journal of Atmospheric and Oceanic Technology, 37(6), pp.1051-1066.

[5] Grena, R., (2013). Solar balloons as mixed solar–wind power systems. Solar Energy, 88, pp.215-226. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.solener.2012.11.021

[6] Åkerstedt, H., n.d. CIA Notable flights and performances: Part 10, 1991-1995. [online] Fédération Aéronautique Internationale. Available at: <https://www.fai.org/sites/default/files/documents/rpt_10_1991-1995.pdf> [Accessed 11 July 2021].
[7] Guinness World Records., (n.d.). Longest human powered flight (distance). Available at: <https://www.guinnessworldrecords.com/world-records/longest-human-powered-flight-%28distance%29> [Accessed 11 July 2021].

[8] Reay, D., (1977). “Man-Powered Rotocraft and the Persistence of the ‘Bird-Men’” In: The History of Man-Powered Flight, pp.249-262. https://doi.org/10.1016/C2013-0-02894-0

Airpup is an exceptionally small kite balloon (aka an aerostat), which is a quiet, easy to use alternative for drones. Kite balloons can fly for days. They have no active controls, no software, no moving parts — they just point into the wind and follow where towed.

Kite balloons can be used for aerial photography, as a replacement for a radio tower, or for capturing weather data. Airpup is based on early 20th century kite balloons. It is the first new kite balloon design in 25 years. See also: Kite aerial photography.

Three wonderful collections from the Library of Congress, showing obsolete technologies.

1. The World’s Transportation Commission Photograph Collection contains nearly nine hundred images by American photographer William Henry Jackson. In addition to railroads, elephants, camels, horses, sleds and sleighs, sedan chairs, rickshaws, and other types of transportation, Jackson photographed city views, street and harbor scenes, landscapes, local inhabitants, and Commission members as they travelled through North Africa, Asia, Australia, and Oceania.

Below: Boatmen towing sailboat against the wind up the Pieho to Peking.

Workmen repairing railroad track:

A camel train on the desert:

Chinese gunboat:

2. The Photochrom Print Collection has almost 6,000 views of Europe and the Middle East and 500 views of North America.
Published primarily from the 1890s to 1910s, these prints were created
by the Photoglob Company in Zürich, Switzerland, and the Detroit
Publishing Company in Michigan. The richly colored images look like
photographs but are actually ink-based photolithographs, usually 6.5 x 9 inches. 

Below: the knights’ hall, Mont St Michel, France:

The beach, Scheveningen, Holland:

Street in the old town, I, Biskra, Algeria:

3. The Tissandier Collection contains approximately 975 items documenting the early history of aeronautics with
an emphasis on balloon flight in France and other European countries.
Subjects include general and technical images of balloons, airships,
and flying machines; portraits of famous balloonists; views of numerous
ascensions, accidents, and world’s fairs; cartoons featuring balloon
themes; pictorial and textual broadsides; and colorful ephemera and
poster advertisements. There are also several hundred illustrations
clipped from books and newspapers. The pictures, created by many
different artists, span the years 1773 to 1910, with the bulk dating
1780-1890.

Via trialsanderrors and Tecnología Obsoleta (who highlights New York pictures).

This engraving, published in 1798, shows the gigantic St. Malo raft, designed in 1791 during the French Revolution. The engraving informs us that this extraordinary structure was 600 feet long by 300 broad, mounts 500 pieces of cannon, 36 and 48-pounders, and is to convey 15,000 troops for the invasion of England. In the midst is a bomb-proof, metal-sheathed citadel.

The St. Malo raft was supposed to be propelled by means of 4 large paddle wheels powered by 4 windmills. Whenever the wind apparatus should be unavailable, the paddle-wheels could be worked by horsepower. Squadrons of cavalry are seen proceeding at full gallop, passing across the surface, having entered the great floating affair by a set of draw-bridges at one end, which can evidently be lifted up when the process of embarkation is completed. They are deploying round and passing into an arched entrance to quarters provided for them in the basement of the central fortress or citadel. Note the second raft in the distance.

These formidable appliances for the invasion of England were never constructed, of course. The idea originated as propaganda to convince the more gullible section of the French public that the notion of the invasion was to be taken seriously. The English, on the other hand, used these posters to arouse British patriotism and to raise awareness against possible French invasion.

Napoleon Bonaparte wrote to Tayllerand, his Minister for Foreign Affairs, in 1797:

“The government must destroy the English monarchy, or expect itself to be destroyed by these intriguing and enterprising islanders. The present moment offers a capital opportunity. Let us concentrate all efforts on the Navy, and annihilate England. That done, Europe is at our feet.”

A contemporary publication, entitled “Recherche sur l’Usage des Radeaux pour une Descente”, deals fully with this chimerical means of transport, and gives elaborate statistics to prove the absurdity of the plan, which was not, of course, ever seriously intended by those in authority:

“One of them would require thirty fir trees in length, 900 in breadth and eight in height, in all 216,000 trees; each a foot square, each containing sixty cubic feet, each foot weighing from fifty-two to fifty-five pounds, would make 3120 to 3300 feet, or three horse loads; and the whole would require 618,000 horses or 108,000 carriages and as many carters to bring them from the forest to the sea. The total weight of one raft would be 44,500 tons.”

The foreseen invasion never happened. Napoleon abandoned the plan because he realised he could not cross the Channel as long as the powerful Royal Navy was patrolling it. Admiral Jervis of England proved right when he said:

“I do not say that the French cannot come – I only say they cannot come by sea.”

Napoleon also seriously considered using a fleet of troop carrying balloons as part of his proposed invasion force. But, his air service chief said the proposed aerial invasion would fail because of the winds. A tunnel was also considered.

Napoleon kept the idea of the invasion alive, but then planned to hit England indirectly, by conquering Egypt, where English trade interests were high. In May of the same year, Napoleon set sail for Alexandria.

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Sources:

• “Two Napoleon Relics“, a booklet published in 1895
• “Napoleon and the invasion of England, Vol.1″, a book from 1908.
• “Napoleon’s planned invasion of the United Kingdom“, Wikipedia.
• “Anti-Napoleon caricature and propaganda in England 1798-1803“, Bogdan Andrei Bernevig.

Related:

• Guido Vigevano’s wind car: 14th century war vehicle
• Wind powered factories: history and future of industrial windmills
• A steam powered submarine: the Ictíneo II

“Airships past and present – together with chapters on the use of balloons in connection with meteorology, photography and the carrier pigeon” by A. Hildebrandt, captain and instructor in the Prussian Balloon Corps (1908). Pictures, table of contents and list of illustrations below. Related: Camping in the clouds – the zeppelin that never lands / Green slow air cargo / Kite aerial photography.

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CONTENTS.

I. THE EARLY HISTORY OF THE ART ...... 1 

II. THE INVENTION OF THE AIR BALLOON . . . . . 9 

III. MONTGOLFIERES, CHARLIERES, AND ROZIERES . . . . 14 

IV. THE THEORY OF THE BALLOON ....... 27 

V. THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE DIRIGIBLE BALLOON ... 38 

VI. THE HISTORY OF THE DIRIGIBLE BALLOON, 1852 1872 . . 48 

VII. DIRIGIBLE BALLOONS- FROM 1883 1897 53 

 

IX. FLYING MACHINES 90 

X. KITES * 116 

 

XI. PARACHUTES . . . 124 

XII. THE DEVELOPMENT OF MILITARY BALLOONING .... 128 

XIII. BALLOONING IN THE FRANCO-PRUSSIAN WAR .... 141 

XIV. MODERN ORGANISATION OF MILITARY BALLOONING IN FRANCE, 

GERMANY, ENGLAND, AND RUSSIA 151 

 

XV. MILITARY BALLOONING IN OTHER COUNTRIES .... 169
 
XVI. BALLOON CONSTRUCTION AND THE PREPARATION OF THE GAS . 175 

XVII. INSTRUMENTS . . . . . . . . . . 192 

XVIII. BALLOONING AS A SPORT 197 

XIX. SCIENTIFIC BALLOONING . . . . . . . . 238 



XX. BALLOON PHOTOGRAPHY 284 

XXI. PHOTOGRAPHIC OUTFIT FOR BALLOON WORK . . . . 302 

XXII. THE INTERPRETATION OF PHOTOGRAPHS 323 

XXIII. PHOTOGRAPHY BY MEANS OF KITES AND ROCKETS . . . 337 

XXIV. PROBLEMS IN PERSPECTIVE 340 

XXV. CARRIER PIGEONS FOR BALLOONS 343 

XXVI. BALLOON LAW 358 

INDEX 



LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS 

1. THE THRONE OP XERXES DRAWN THROUGH THE AIR BY FOUR TAME 

EAGLES . . .... . . . . * . . 2 

 

2. FAUSTE VERANZIO IN HIS PARACHUTE . . ... . . 3 

3. THE PLYING SHIP, DESIGNED BY FRANCISCO DE LANA ... 4 

4. PHOTOGRAPH OF AUGSBURG, SHOWING THE CATHEDRAL. TAKEN 

FROM A BALLOON BY A. RIEDINGER . . . . . . 5 

5. MEERWEIN'S FLYING MACHINE. FROM MOEDEBECK'S " POCKET BOOK 

FOR BALLOONISTS " . ' 7 

6. CLOUDS PHOTOGRAPHED FROM A BALLOON 10 

7. ASCENT OF A " MONTGOLFIERE " 11 

8. PORTJENGRAT, AN ALPINE PEAK. PHOTOGRAPH BY SPELTERINI . 15 

9. A SUCCESSFUL LANDING . . . .16 

10. APPARATUS FOR GENERATING HYDROGEN . . . 20 

 

11. PARIS, SHOWING THE EIFFEL TOWER ...... 21 

12. A BALLOON IN THE ACT OF LANDING 23 

13. THE "ROZIERE," CONSTRUCTED BY PILATRE DE ROZIER ... 24 

14. THE BAROSCOPE . . . ' . . . . '. . .28 

15. VIENNA. PHOTOGRAPH TAKEN FROM A CAPTIVE BALLOON . . 29 

16. STOCKHOLM, SEEN FROM A HEIGHT OF 1,600 FEET . . . .31 

17. THE STATOSCOPE, BY GRADENWITZ . . . . . . .35 

18. A PARADE ON THE TEMPELHOFER FELD . . . 36 

19. BALLOON WITH SAIL, AND WITH GUIDE-ROPE 40 

20. SCOTT'S FISH BALLOON . .41 

 

21. BALLOON, DESIGNED BY GENERAL MEUSNIER 45 

 

22. GIFFARD'S DIRIGIBLE BALLOON, MADE IN 1852 . . . . 48 

23. GIFFARD'S SECOND BALLOON, MADE IN 1855 50 

24. DUPUY DE LOME'S BALLOON, 1872 . . . . . . .51 

25. PAUL HAENLEIN'S DIRIGIBLE BALLOON 52 

 

26. THE BASKET OF TISSANDIER'S DIRIGIBLE BALLOON . ... 53

 

27. TISSANDIER'S DIRIGIBLE BALLOON 54 

28. THE BALLOON " LA FRANCE," BUILT BY RENARD AND KREBS . . 56

29. CAPTAIN RENARD 57 

30. DR. WOLFERT'S DIRIGIBLE BALLOON ABOUT TO START ... 58 

31. SCHWARZ'S BALLOON AFTER THE ACCIDENT 59 

32. COUNT ZEPPELIN'S DIRIGIBLE BALLOON 62 

33. COUNT ZEPPELIN 63 

34. SANTOS DUMONT 66 

35. SANTOS DUMONT'S SECOND BALLOON BREAKS ITS BACK, MAY HTH, 

1899 67 

36. SANTOS DUMONT'S THIRD BALLOON . .... 68 

37. GRADENWITZ ANEMOMETER 69 

38. EOZE'S DOUBLE BALLOON . 72 

 

39. SEVERO'S BALLOON ABOUT TO START 75 

40. FRAMEWORK AND CAR OF L^BAUDY'S DIRIGIBLE BALLOON . . 78 

41. CAR OF L^BAUDY'S BALLOON . . 79 

42. LE"BAUDY'S DIRIGIBLE BALLOON 81

 

43. MAJOR PARSEVAL'S DIRIGIBLE BALLOON 85 

44. COUNT DE LA VAULX . . .86 

45. COUNT DE LA VAULX'S DIRIGIBLE BALLOON 87 

46. DEGEN'S FLYING MACHINE . ... . . . . .90 

47. DIAGRAMS ILLUSTRATING MAREY'S THEORY WITH REFERENCE TO 

THE FLIGHT OF A BIRD 91 

48. STENTZEL'S FLYING MACHINE 92 

49. DUFAUX' FLYING MACHINE WITH PROPELLERS . . . . . 94 

50. SANTOS DUMONT'S FIRST FLYING MACHINE 95 

51. PHILLIPS' FLYING MACHINE 97 

52. SIR HIRAM MAXIM'S FLYING MACHINE 98 

 

53. ADER'S FLYING MACHINE . . . 99 

54. KRESS'S FLYING MACHINE 100 

55. DITTO 101 

56. STARTING ARRANGEMENTS FOR PROFESSOR LANGLEY'S FLYING 

MACHINE '-..-.. 103 

 

57. PROFESSOR LANGLEY'S FLYING MACHINE AT THE MOMENT OF 

STARTING ... 104 

58. HOFMANN'S FIRST MODEL WITH CARBONIC ACID MOTOR . _ . 105 

59. HOFMANN'S WORKING MODEL . 105 

60. HERR HOFMANN AND MR. PATRICK ALEXANDER IN THE WORKSHOP 106 

61. LILIENTHAL ON HIS FLYING MACHINE 107 

62. LILIENTHAL STARTING FROM THE HILL ON HIS FLYING MACHINE 108 

63. STARTING AN AEROPLANE 110

  

64. AEROPLANE IN FLIGHT 1ll 

65. ARCHDEACON'S EXPERIMENTS ON THE SEINE 113 

66. LANGLEY'S FLYING MACHINE ON THE POTOMAC . . . .114 

67. WELLNER'S FLYING MACHINE 115 

68. THE JAPANESE "MAY CARP " 116 

69. HARGRAVE KITE 117 

70. OTHER SHAPES OF HARGRAVE KITES 117 

71. VARIOUS FORMS OF KITES . .118 

 

72. CODY'S KITE 119 

73. CODY'S KITE USED AS A CAPTIVE BALLOON ... .120 

74. KITE FOR SIGNALLING 121 

75. SIGNALLING BY MEANS OF LIGHTS FROM A KITE . . . .121 

76. LIEUTENANT WISE MAKING AN ASCENT IN A KITE . . . .122 

77. MILLET'S KITE CARRYING OBSERVERS 123 

 

78. COOKING'S PARACHUTE 125 

79. FRAULEIN KATHE PAULUS PREPARING TO DESCEND IN HER PARA- 

CHUTE . . . . ..... . 126 

80. FRAULEIN KATHE PAULUS WITH HER DOUBLE PARACHUTE . 126 

81. FALL OF A PARACHUTE . . ... . . 127 

82. METHODS OF TRANSPORTING A CAPTIVE BALLOON . 129 

83. LANDING OF A BALLOON IN THE STREETS OF STRASSBURG . . 130 

84. BELLE-ALLIANCE PLATZ, BERLIN, TAKEN FROM A BALLOON . 132 

85. HELPING TO LAND A BALLOON . . . . . . . . .133 

86. A BALLOON ABOUT TO LAND . . . . . . . . 135 

87. KITE-BALLOON AT ANCHOR . . . . '. . . 137 

88. STEAM WINCH FOR PULLING IN A CAPTIVE BALLOON . . . 142 

89. GUN CONSTRUCTED BY KRUPP FOR FIRING AT BALLOONS . . 145 

 

90. SKETCH ILLUSTRATING THE METHOD OF AIMING AT A BALLOON . 147 

91. WAGGON CARRYING GAS CYLINDERS FOR ONE DIVISION OF THE 

BALLOON CORPS . . . . . . . . . . 149 

92. OLD METHOD OF GENERATING HYDROGEN. .. .. . .. :..' 152 

93. MODERN GAS WAGGON . . . ; . . . ... 153 

94. FRENCH METHOD OF SUSPENDING THE BASKET FOR AN OBSERVER. 155 

95. ONE OF THE BALLOONS IS PEGGED DOWN IN THE OPEN FIELD, 

AND THE OTHER IS SUNK IN A SPECIALLY PREPARED PIT . . 156 

96. FRONT AND REAR WAGGONS OF A MODERN GAS EQUIPMENT FOR 

USE IN THE FIELD . .' ... , . ... . 157 

97. WAGGON CARRYING TOOLS AND APPLIANCES, THE BALLOON BEING 

PACKED ON THE TOP . . . . . . ^ . . . 159 

98. BALLOONS USED FOR WIRELESS TELEGRAPHY ON THE TEMPELHOFER 

FELD . . . . . ... . ... ' . 161 

99. BARRACKS FOR THE PRUSSIAN BALLOON CORPS AT TEGEL . .163 

100. A COLLECTION OF EXPLODED GAS CYLINDERS . , ... 164 

101. CAPTAIN HINTERSTOISSER, OF THE AUSTRIAN BALLOON CORPS . 166 

102. AFTER A LANDING . . , . . . ... .171 

103. A BALLOON READY FOR INFLATION '. . 173 

104. ASCENT OF A CAPTIVE BALLOON IN CALM WEATHER . . . 176 

105. ASCENT OF A CAPTIVE BALLOON ON A WINDY DAY . . . 177 

106. STEEL CYLINDER FOR CONTAINING HYDROGEN 179 

107. SECTION THROUGH STEEL CYLINDER 179 

108. MAKING BALLOON ENVELOPES IN REIDINGER'S FACTORY . . . 181 

109. PROFESSOR FINSTERWALDER'S PATTERNS FOR BALLOON ENVELOPES 182 

110. BALLOON VALVES 183 

111. THE FIRST RIPPING-PANEL USED IN A BALLOON IN 1844 . . 185 

112. ARRANGEMENTS FOR RIPPING-PANEL . . . . , . 185 

113. NET OF A BALLOON 186 

114. DIFFERENT KINDS OF GRAPNEL 186 

115. THE KITE-BALLOON DESIGNED BY MAJOR VON PARSEVAL AND 

CAPTAIN VON SIGSFELD 187 

115A. DITTO 188 

116. DRAWING SHOWING THE DESIGN OF THE KITE-BALLOON . . 189 

117. BASKET SUSPENSION 190 

118. ANEROID BAROMETER . ........ 192 

119. BAROGRAPH, OR RECORDING BAROMETER . . . .. 193 

120. BALLOON BASKET AND ITS CONTENTS 194 

121. VOLLBEHR'S MICROPHOTOSCOPE 194 

 

122. MICROPHOTOSCOPE IN CASE 195 

123. MICROPHOTOSCOPE, WITH MAGNIFYING GLASS FOR USE IN DAYLIGHT 195 

124. PROFESSOR BUSLEY, PRESIDENT OF THE BERLIN BALLOON CLUB . 199 

125. A BANK OF CLOUDS 201 

126. BALLOON AFTER THE RIPPING-CORD HAS BEEN PULLED . . . 202 

127. THE HOFBURG, VIENNA . . 203 

128. HELIGOLAND 205 

129. WATER ANCHOR FOR BALLOON 209 

130. BALLOON EXPEDITIONS ACROSS THE ENGLISH CHANNEL . . .211 

131. COUNT DE LA VAULX' BALLOON OVER THE MEDITERRANEAN . . 212 

132. BASKET OF COUNT DE LA VAULX' BALLOON . . . . . 212 

133. COUNT DE LA VAULX' DE VIATOR IN ACTION . . . . . 213 

 

134. DEVIATOR OFFERING THE MAXIMUM RESISTANCE .... 214 

135. DEVIATOR OFFERING THE MINIMUM RESISTANCE . . . . 215 

136. MAP SHOWING THE COURSE OF THE BALLOON FROM BERLIN TO 

MARKARYD 216 

137. CURVE GIVEN BY THE RECORDING BAROMETER ON THE JOURNEY 

FROM BERLIN TO MARKARYD 217 

138. STOCKHOLM SEEN FROM AN ALTITUDE OF 3,000 FEET . . . 221 

139. MISCHABELHORN, SEEN FROM THE EAST 222 

140. THE LAKE OF LUCERNE 227 

141. BALLOON AND BALLOONISTS ON THEIR WAY HOME .... 229 

142. LANDING IN A TREE 231 

143. DILLINGEN, SEEN THROUGH THE CLOUDS . . . . . . 232 

144. BUILDING A PONTOON OVER THE SPREE . . .... 235 

145. BRIDGE OVER THE ILLER, NEAR KEMPTEN 236 

146. DR. JEFFRIES WITH THE BAROMETER USED ON HIS ASCENTS . . 240 

147. APPARATUS FOR GENERATING HYDROGEN ..... 241 

148. GLAISHER AND COXWELL IN THE BASKET 244 

149. GLAISHER'S INSTRUMENTS 245 

150. BASKET FITTED WITH INSTRUMENTS ACCORDING TO THE METHOD 

PROPOSED BY ASSMANN 247 

 

151. ASSMANN'S ASPIRATOR-PSYCHROMETER 248 

152. PROFESSOR ASSMANN AND PROFESSOR BERSON 249 

153. THE KAISER ATTENDING THE ASCENT OF A RECORDING BALLOON 

ON THE TEMPELHOFER FELD, NEAR BERLIN . . . .251 

154. MAJOR MOEDEBECK 252 

155. CAPTAIN VON SIGSFELD 252 

156. CAPTAIN GROSS . 253 

157. A RECORDING BALLOON WITH INSTRUMENTS . 254 

158. A WICKKRWORK BASKET WITH INSTRUMENTS FOR A RECORDING 

BALLOON 255 

159. DR. HERGESELL . . . 256 

160. ASCENT OF A BALLOON, FITTED WITH A PARACHUTE, AT LINDENBERG 257 

161. ASCENT OF A BOX KITE CONTAINING METEOROLOGICAL INSTRUMENTS 258 

162. WINCH HOUSE AT ASSM ANN'S AERONAUTICAL OBSERVATORY . . 259 

163. CURVKS TAKEN BY RECORDING INSTRUMENTS . . . . .261 

164. CURVES GIVEN BY RECORDING INSTRUMENTS . . . . . 262 

165. A. LAURENCE ROTCH . 264 

166. KITE ASCENTS ON THE PRINCE OF MONACO'S YACHT . . . 265 

167. RECORDING BALLOONS ON THE SS. "PLANET" . . ; ' . . 266 

168. THE AMERICAN METEOROLOGIST, ROTCH, MAKING SOME KITE 

ASCENTS ON THE ATLANTIC . . . . . . . . 267 

169. BARO-THKRMO-HYGROGRAPH, DESIGNED FOR BALLOONS . . . 269 

170. BARO-THERMO-HYGROGRAPH, DESIGNED FOR KITES . ' . . . 270 

171. BARO-THERMO-HYGROGRAPH, DESIGNED FOR RECORDING BALLOONS 271 

172. PROFESSOR SURING, OF THE PRUSSIAN METEOROLOGICAL INSTITUTE 272 

173. THE BALLOON, "PRUSSIA." BELONGING TO THE AERONAUTICAL 

OBSERVATORY . 273 

 

174. HERR VON SCHROETTER'S ORDINARY HANDWRITING . . . . 274 

175. HERR VON SCHROETTER'S HANDWRITING UNDER AN ATMOSPHERIC 

PRESSURE OF 9'45 INCHES OF MERCURY. . . . . . 275 

176. THE BALLOON, "PRUSSIA," HALF FULL OF GAS . . ... 276 

177. THE BALLOON, "PRUSSIA," GETTING READY FOR AN ASCENT . . 277 

 

178. VIKTOR SILBERER, PRESIDENT OF THE AERO CLUB, OF VIENNA . 279 

179. THE SHADOW OF THE BALLOON IS SEEN ON THE CLOUDS, TOGETHER 

WITH A HALO . - . . . . 280 

180. THE SHADOW OF THE BALLOON IS CAST ON THE CLOUDS, AND THE 

CAR IS SEEN SURROUNDED BY A RAINBOW . . . . .281 

181. TRIBOULET'S PANORAMIC APPARATUS . . 288 

182. THE FIRST PHOTOGRAPH TAKEN FROM A BALLOON IN AUSTRIA . 289 

183. THE REICHSBRUCKE IN VIENNA . ... . . . . 290 

184. EASTERN RAILWAY STATION IN BUDAPESTH ..... 294 

185. CLOUDS OVER THE ALPS . . . . . . . 298 

186. PHOTOGRAPH, OF A VILLAGE 299 

187. PHOTOGRAPH OF A VILLAGE, TAKEN AT NIGHT . . . . 300
 
188. DUCOM'S PHOTOGRAPHIC APPARATUS 304

 

189. HAGEN'S METHOD OF MOUNTING THE CAMERA ..... 304  

190. PHOTOGRAPH OF THE EXHIBITION BUILDINGS ... . 306 

191. BARON VON BASSUS' RIFLE APPARATUS ...... 308

  

192. VAUTIER-DUFOUR APPARATUS, PACKED IN ITS CASE . . . 309 

193. VAUTIIiR-DUFOUR APPARATUS, READY FOR USE 309 

194. AIGUILLE VERTE, TAKEN WITH THE VAUTIER-DUFOUR APPARATUS 310 

195. AIGUILLE VERTE, TAKEN WITH AN ORDINARY LENS . . .311 

196. FILM HOLDER . 312 

197. DIAGRAM SHOWING THE RELATION BETWEEN THE FOCAL LENGTH 

OP THE LENS, THE SIZE OF THE IMAGE, AND THE DISTANCE OF 

THE OBJECT 317 

198. MONT BLANC, AS SEEN FROM GENEVA . . . see fating page 317 

199. DITTO ; . - . see facing page 317 

200. PYRAMIDS OF CHEOPS, CHEPHREN, AND MENCHERES . . . . 318 

201. CAPTAIN SPELTERINI, OF ZURICH . . . . . . 320 

202. VILLAGE IN POSEN, AS SEEN FROM A BALLOON IN WINTER . . 323 

203. HERRENBERG IN WURTTEMBURG 324 

204. . . . 325 

205. VIEW OF BLANKENBURG IN THE HARZ MOUNTAINS . . . 326 

206. RUDERSDORF . . . 327 

207. CHALKPITS NEAR RUDERSDORF 328 

208. VILLAGE IN THE UCKERMARK IN WINTER ..... 329 

209. OBJECTS OF DIFFERENT COLOURS, PHOTOGRAPHED FROM ABOVE . 330 

 

210- DITTO . 331 

211. CAMERA FOR THREE-COLOUR PHOTOGRAPHY 332 

212. SLIDING SCREEN CARRIER FOR THREE-COLOUR PHOTOGRAPHY . . 333 

213. MIETHE'S CAMERA FOR THREE-COLOUR PHOTOGRAPHY IN A BALLOON 334 

214. BOULADE'S STEREOSCOPIC CAMERA 336 

215. BATUT'S KITE FOR PHOTOGRAPHIC APPARATUS .... 338 

216. PANORAMIC APPARATUS FOR A BALLOON WITHOUT OBSERVERS . 338 

217. THE VILLAGE OF EUDOW, AS SHOWN ON THE ORDNANCE MAP . 340 

218. PHOTOGRAPH OF RUDOW, TAKEN FROM A BALLOON . . .341 

 

219. PHOTOGRAPHIC REPRODUCTION OF MESSAGES ON A REDUCED SCALE 345 

220. DARK SLATE.-COLOURED CARRIER PIGEON BELONGING TO HERR 

FLORING 350 

221. HAYNAU IN SILESIA. TAKEN FROM A HEIGHT OF 8,000 FEET . 352 

222. IN THIS PHOTOGRAPH THE SHADOW OF THE BALLOON IS SEEN ON 

THE "OLD FORTIFICATIONS ........ 355 

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No Tech Magazine / Low-tech Magazine